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Babbling Stage: You have to love it when children begin to speak! The babbling stage is a very early stage of language development, usually occuring around ages 3-4 months, in which children spontaneously produce all sorts of nonsensical, unrelated sounds. No real words are formed at this point, but children are just beginning to put sounds together in order to form words, which happens after the babbling stage. Barbiturates: This is a class of drug derived from barbituric acid that is often used for medical purposes as a sedative and/or hypnotic. The effects barbiturates produce are similar to alcohol, causing feelings of depression, sleepiness, impaired judgment, and reduced inhibitions. Barbiturates fall under the "depressant" drug class and can be very addictive. One example you are probably familiar with is Pentothal, also known as truth serum. This barbiturate (and the reason people refer to it as truth serum) is because it produces a drunken-like state during which people are less inhibited and more likely to tell the truth. Basal Ganglia: An area of the forebrain that is important to smooth muscle movement and actions. This area works in conjunction with the midbrain to help us avoid moving in choppy, fragmented ways. Basic Research: As opposed to applied research, basic research is conducted with the intent of increasing the scientific knowledge base, and to find theoretical truth and understanding (not specifically to solve practical problems). For example, someone conducting basic research on cheating behavior may design a study examining whether students from divorced families cheat more often than students not from divorced families. Notice that the research is not done to reduce cheating, help people who cheat, or any other "applied" aspect, but to increase the understanding of cheating behavior. Basic Trust: Erik Erikson conducted an enormous amount of research on developmental issues. One such issue is that of attachment. He indicated that children who have secure attachments with their parents have a general sense that the world is predictable and reliable (this is basic trust). This basic trust, according to Erikson, is formed by loving, sensitive, care givers and not from genetic makeup or to a continuously positive environment. Basilar Membrane: This is a long membrane that is part of the auditory system. The membrane runs the length of the cochlea (inside the ear) and contains those tiny hairs that act as sound receptors. Behavior Modification: A type of behavioral therapy in which the principles of Operant Conditioning (reinforcement, punishments, etc.) are used to eliminate some type of unwanted, maladaptive, behavior. For example, a person may feel that they no longer want to smoke (the maladaptive behavior) and so the person is given a favorite piece of candy every time a cigarette is desired but refused. So, when the person wants a cigarette but does not have one, they get a piece of their favorite candy as a reward. Behavior Therapy: In 1952, Hans Eysenck coined this term in reference to a type of treatment that focuses on changing or reducing the occurrence of some maladaptive behavior as opposed to simply examining the unconscious conflicts or aspects associated with the maladaptive behavior. So instead of trying to "get to the root of a problem", behavior therapy aims to get rid of the problem regardless of the feelings about the behavior, the underlying causes, etc. In addition, behavior therapy is based on the premise that maladaptive behavior, like adaptive behaviors, are learned, and therefore can be unlearned. Thus, behavior therapies (like systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, and behavior modification) are based on the principles of learning. Behavioral Psychology (behavioral approach): The behavioral approach was founded by John B. Watson and originally rejected the study of mental processes in favor of the study of overt behavior (observable behavior) and external factors – study of observable events. The behaviorists believed all behavior was determined by stimuli in the environment. Today, this approach still stresses the importance of the environment on behavior, but also allows for inclusion of cognitive processes and feelings (early behaviorists rejected cognition in the study of behavior). Behaviorism: The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. This is an extremely important concept for science; without it, how can you ever find out what is true, false, real, or fake. Between Subjects Design: In a Between Subjects Design each participant participates in one and only one group. The results from each group are then compared to each other to examine differences, and thus, effect of the IV. For example, in a study examining the effect of Bayer aspirin vs Tylenol on headaches, we can have 2 groups (those getting Bayer and those getting Tylenol). Participants get either Bayer OR Tylenol, but they do NOT get both. Biastophilia: A paraphilia (or sexually practice that is considered deviant or not socially acceptable) in which sexual arousal becomes dependent on sexually attacking a nonconsenting, surprised, terrified, and struggling stranger. This is a kind of rape even though most rapes are committed by normophilic men (men who's sexually practices are not considered sexually deviant...other than rape, of course). The main source of the sexual arousal is the actual fear, surprise, and resistance from the victim. Binocular Cues: Humans are able to see things that are both far and near, and can actually identify where those objects are in space (meaning, they can determine if those objects are close or far away). This sort of depth perception requires both of our eyes, which is referred to as binocular cues (depth cues that requires both of our eyes). Biofeedback: A method of behavior modification that uses principles of operant conditioning to change a maladaptive behavior. With this method, a person is presented with visual or auditory information about some internal, involuntary process. The information is actual feedback about the internal process that the person can use to increase control of the internal process. For example, a person suffering from stress can be hooked up to a biofeedback machine that creates a sound whenever the person starts getting stressed (increased heart rate, blood pressure, etc., would cause the machine to produce the sound). By paying attention to the sounds, the person can use relaxation techniques when there are some internal changes due to the stress - even if they are not yet feeling them, the effects can be identified by the machine and then controlled by the person. Over time, the goal is to be able to control these behaviors without the use of the machine. Biological Perspective: To understand behavior by understanding the biological processes associated with those behaviors. This includes the brain, nervous system, genetics, and more. This is becoming more prominent all the time. Biological Psychology: Biological psychology is a branch or type of psychology that brings together biology and psychology to understand behavior and thought. Biological psychology looks at the link between biology and psychological events such as how information travels thoughout our bodies (neural impulses, axons, dendrites, etc.), how different neurotransmitters effect sleep, dreams, and other behaviors, just to name a few. Biopsychological Perspective: The psychological school of thought based on the premise that physiological influences and factors are the most important factors in developing, determining, and causing behaviors and mental processes. In the classic "nature-nurture" debate, the physiological perspective IS the "nature". Biopsychology: The scientific field of study that examines the relationships between biology and psychology, and how they influence behavior and cognition. For example, biopsychology examines topics such as how your eyes are able to inform your brain what you are reading, how the brain interprets this information, and how your brain communicates with your hand to move the mouse and click on different links. Bipolar Disorder: Also known as manic depression, this is a mood disorder in which the person's mood swings from euphoric, manic stages to depressed (from one "pole" to the other). This is not simply being happy and then sad, but rather periods of uncontrollable, clinical mania and longer periods of depression. Although there are many different perspectives about the basis of bipolar disorder, the most popular view is that it is caused by a chemical imbalance. During periods of mania, the person may become incoherent, become irrational, hyperactive, unrealistic about themselves and others, and act in sexually, socially, and physically unhealthy ways (sleeping with many people, going on shopping sprees which they can't possibly afford, etc.). Blind Spot: Visual information travels along the optic nerve in the eye before it begins its journey to the brain for processing. There is a certain spot on the optic nerve that does not have any receptor cells (the area where the optic nerve leaves the eye), and, as a result, can't receive information. The result is the blind spot. Blocking: Sorry football fans, but this is something a little different than throwing a block on the field. Rather, this refers to a conditioning principle first addressed by Kamin (1969). Kamin indicated that having a CS (conditioned stimulus) that can predict a UCS (also known as US or unconditioned stimulus) is sufficient. What this means is that, if an animal learns that a CS is a realible predictor of a UCS (e.g., a pigeon learns that a light reliably predicts the onset of some painful sitmulus such as a shock), then the pigeon will not become conditioned to another CS or learn that any other CS predicts that UCS. So, our little pigeon friend will not learn that a bell predicts the onset of the shock the same way the light did. Once the pigeon learns one reliable association with the CS, it essentially "blocks" further associations. Borderline Personality Disorder: This is a commonly diagnosed disorder that is characterized by unpredictable and impulsive behavior as well as sudden changes or shifts in mood. Because of this instability, people with this disorder have a difficult time maintaining relationships, and keeping a stable and positive self image. Some psychologists have suggested that this disorder hugs the line between mood disorders and personality disorders, which may cause some confusion when diagnosing people. The disorder is so commonly diagnosed that as much as 20% of all psychiatric patients are diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (Frances & Widiger, 1986). The primary characterisitics include (not all of these symptoms have to be present for a person to be diagnosed with the disorder): unstable and intense interpersonal relationships chronic fears of abandonment chronic intense anger and loneliness self-destructive behavior a range of cognitive problems or distortions such as suspiciousness, unusual feelings of having a sixth sense, and unusual supersitiousness unstable social relations and repeated failures in job situations impulsive behavior such as fighting, running away, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, promoscuity, and binge eating Brainstem: This area of the brain is not only the oldest area, but also is located in the most inner regions of the brain. The brainstem is located just above the spinal column. In fact, it is located directly above the spinal column, and is where the spinal cord enters the brain. The brainstem includes the medulla (responsible for functions such as respiration), and the reticular formation, which acts like a bridge; it allows information to pass back and forth from one side (hemisphere) of the brain to the other. Broca's Area: Named for the French surgeon and anthropologist, Paul Broca, who found this area of the brain, Broca's Area is located in the frontal lobe of the brain and acts as the speech center. Although there are other areas of the brain that also influence speech (Wernicke's Area and the motor cortex), Broca's Area is considered the central component. Bulimia Nervosa: People with this eating disorder engage in binge eating and purging behaviors. What this means is that a person who suffers from Bulimia Nervosa will have episodes during which they eat tremendous amounts of food (usually foods that are high in calories) and then go vomit or use laxatives to lose weight. While there are many men who suffer from this eating disorder, the majority of bulimics are women in their teens and mid twenties. Like other eating disorders, there tends to be a relationship between social views of attractiveness and bulimia; cultures that identify being thin with being attractive have higher rates of bulimia (of course there are many alternative perspectives on the causes and treatments for bulimia). Burnout: This is an actual physical and emotional problem that results from excessive on-the- job hassles (oh, can I relate to this). The symptoms of burnout include fatigue and physical exhaustion, depression, mental fatigue, sleeping problems, etc. Although anyone with a job is susceptible to burnout, teachers, police officers, social workers, and doctors are more often subjected to the types of hassles that lead to burnout. Butterfly Effect: This is really more of a physics/chaos theory, but it does relate to psychological as well, so here goes. The butterfly effect serves as a metaphor for life in a chaotic world. Specifically, it suggests that small events can have very large effects. This is a relatively new approach as it was once believed that small events produced small effects and large events produced large effects. Chaos theory, however, changed this view and now the butterfly effect sugests that little things, like a bird flapping its wings over China today, can have big effects, like causing a hurricane in America next week. Bystander Effect: The Bystander Effect is a social phenomenon in which a person (or persons) are less likely to offer help to another person (or persons) when there are more people around who can also provide assistance. Many people believe that, when there is an emergency and lots of people are present, the people in need are more likely to get assistance. However, this is not the case. Rather, the more people there are who can help, the less likely each person is to offer help. Thus, when in a group, people are less likely to offer help than when they are alone.
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| Pschology Glossary and definitions. | raj_oct_2002 | Psychology Wiki | 1 | 07-22-2008 04:12 PM |
Psychology Glossary and definitions. ("B")
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